The Need for Better Mental Health Care

IntroductionMany individuals who woke up this morning wished that they should have never done so at all. There are those who are about to go to bed praying that they will not have any more tomorrows to face. While some who are at work, sitting through their classes at school, or fixing their children’s lunches are wondering what have become of their lives and what more potential does the bleak future offer.In fact, there are those whose family and friends are mourning already, never quite understanding why an apparently healthy human being would end his own life. One common thread unites all these people and events: mental depression. This paper looks at the need for more mental health care services in order to better help people suffering from this condition and thus provide hope for them and for their families.Gravity of Mental IllnessFew individuals realize the gravity of a mental illness such as depression in another human’s life. For some, the state of being depres sed is a choice, and a person can easily â€Å"snap out of it† if only they would think positively and cut all the drama. Mental illnesses just like depression, is a medical condition, an actual disease of the mind that is not easily fixed with mere will power.People sick with flu or colds are not asked to cure themselves, hence, why should depressed individuals bear their sufferings alone and without any care? It is a relief, nonetheless, that depression is not anymore new. Millions of individuals have it and millions are also seeking the necessary treatment and medication to get on with their lives. However, recognizing and acknowledging the problem, as opposed to ignoring it, is the first step towards recovery.From the early philosophers, scholars and scientists’ perspectives, depression is a mystery caused by unknown powers in the universe. Based from early accounts, depressed or melancholic people demonstrate bizarre behavior, in which nobody could pinpoint the re ason behind. Symptoms range from extreme sadness and lack of zeal in life to drastic mood changes. With the gradual development of modern scientific processes and correspondence among experts, specialists were able to define depression, identified its symptoms, and tried to discover its causes and remedies.Mental Health FacilitiesTraditional psychiatric hospitals and private psychiatrists and psychologists have been unable to meet the growing need for mental health services. The trend has been to develop local mental health clinics that offer the services of psychiatrists, psychologists, social workers, psychiatric nurses, family therapists and others.Emergency help is rendered to persons with acute mental disorders as well as to persons with chronic emotional problems. Short-term counselling and psychotherapy are usually provided. Programs are planned to deal with problems involving school, family, marriage partners, drug and alcohol abuse, and adolescence. Night clinics and suicid e prevention centers are often established if a need exists. A person in need of immediate assistance is frequently helped by phone â€Å"hotline† services, manned by counselors and others, such as trained volunteers.Many non-traditional facilities have been established to meet the needs of local area. An example of such a facility is a psychiatric day care center which was developed in a sparsely populated rural area in Michigan. Lacking funds to support a traditional psychiatric day care center, a psychiatric nursing consultant sought lay volunteers and used facilities in a community church to set up a program.This program was designed to maintain and support persons referred by the local hospital psychiatric service and the community mental health center outpatient service. The nurse spent two hours one day a week as a group therapist. She also acted as a consultant to the volunteers. The program successfully met its objectives. It has grown from one group and one voluntee r to three groups and thirty volunteers.Person-Centered TherapyPerson-centered therapy is differentiated from other forms of therapy because of its â€Å"focus on the importance of the therapeutic relationship for effective therapy† (Josefowitz & Myran 2005). The person-centered approach was founded by acclaimed American counselor and psychotherapist, Carl Rogers (Kirschenbaum 2004). Early during his career, Rogers witnessed how stubborn a client could become and all together reject therapy even if it is for his betterment.He then saw that patients could resist â€Å"even the most skilful therapist intervention† if such intervention is against his wish or purpose. Rogers realized the loopholes in the popular practices of his times for failing to incite effective client participation. He pondered on a new approach based on his understanding that â€Å"it is the client who knows what hurts, what directions to go, what problems are crucial, what experiences have been dee ply buried.†Rogers was the first to employ the â€Å"non-directive† approach. It was a unique method where the counselor does not question, interpret, advice, suggest or offer any directive remarks on the patient, he only listens. The therapist carefully reflect the patient’s thoughts back to him, with the idea of helping him realize his issues and then decide on his own the direction of his self-actualization.It was this non-directive method that applied the initiative that persons going into psychotherapies are not helpless individuals at the mere mercy of their psychotherapists’ designs. Clients can wilfully determine how their treatment should go because they are â€Å"responsible clients† who knows what aspects of their lives and personality need to be treated. His method has such respect for its patients that it assumes the key to a person’s self-actualization lies on the person and not on external influences (therapists or counselors). One of Roger’s important ideas that still have its impact today and is crucial to the personal approach is that a â€Å"counselor’s attitude is as important as his techniques† (Kirschenbaum 2004)Depression as a Mental Health IssueDepression is one of the most prevalent mental health medical cases in the United States today with about 18 million Americans or 9.5 percent of the population affected. The problem of depression is not to be taken lightly, nor set aside as sheer caprice of a problematic person. Medical institutions including the United State’s National Institute of Mental Health declared it as a serious â€Å"real illness,† not just because of its prevalence, but also because of its effect on the lives of the afflicted individuals. Monetary expenses is a give fact when seeking treatment for depression, yet the heavier costs are those that concerns the pains of the individuals, the drudgery they have to face everyday, and the correspondin g effect of the situation to their friends and loved ones.Depression has already been observed since the ancient times, even during the prehistoric times. Real efforts to comprehend depression were only apparently undertaken during the time of the Hellenistic Greeks. Later part of history revealed that the growth of psychiatric or psychological science was hampered due to society’s closed mindedness and lack of concern for the mentally ill. Nevertheless, with the sporadic studies now and then, it was discovered that depression was once called â€Å"melancholia† and scientists made quite commendable documentation of the symptoms they observed among melancholic persons (Hollon, 2002).The causes of depression are often summarized into the three classifications of neurobiology, genetics and environment. Neurobiological factors pertain to the abnormalities in neurotransmitters and hormones that affect mood, manner of handling stress, and perspective of traumatic situations. Genetics, as the name implies, refers to the inheritance of potential depression-causing gene traits within the family.There is no solid proof of the existence of this gene so far, although there are relevant studies made to suggest that genetics may indeed play a role. Besides the number of cases of within-family depression speaks for itself. The last factor, triggers environmental depression brought about by emotionally taxing events that are not easily forgotten or set aside, so that it comes to haunt the person and affect his normal life. Depression may also be learned when the thought of powerlessness is so internalised. The person feels depressed with that thought that whatever actions will not merit any change or improvement.ConclusionHealth Plans generally fall into three categories based on how they are organized to deliver/pay for care. HMOs (Health Maintenance Organizations) deliver services through provider networks and may use a member’s primary care provider as a ‘gatekeeper’ to more specialized services. PPOs (Preferred Provider Organizations) generally allow access to any provider, with some cost savings to a member for using providers in the network. Indemnity plans are traditional insurance products with defined cash payments, and no network limitations.At present, prevalent types of Health Plans are HMOs and PPOs   (Health Plan). Effective policy and decision-making cannot be made in a vacuum, and is committed to providing the most comprehensive data possible. Taking that into consideration, public Health Plan performance must be well studied and its data analyzed. The HMO as well as other health care delivery systems must unite in order to address this issue since they are all important and adequate means of health care for many consumers with mental health problems.REFERENCESBeck. A. (1967). Depression. Pennsylvania: University of Pennsylvania Grnblatt, E. (2006, November 3). Depression; New depression research has b een reported   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   by scientists at Ludwig Boltzmann Institute. Genomics & Genetics Weekly.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Retrieved Feb. 8, 2007   http://proquest.umi.com/pqdweb?did=1151092561&Fmt=3&clientId=11123&RQT=309&VName=PQDHollon, D.S., Thase, M.E. & Markowitz, J.C. (2002, November). Treatment and Prevention of Depression. Psychological Science, 3,   39. Retrieved Feb. 8, 2007   Ã‚  Ã‚  at: http://proquest.umi.com/pqdweb?did=233500451&sid=5&Fmt=2&cli entId=11123&RQT=309&VName=PQD

Exams Essasys

Centre Number Surname Other Names Candidate Signature Candidate Number For Examiner’s Use Examiner’s Initials Question Mark General Certificate of Secondary Education Higher Tier January 2012 1 2 3 4 5 6 TOTAL English/English Language Unit 1 Tuesday 10 January 2012 9. 00 am to 11. 15 am ENG1H Understanding and producing non-fiction texts H For this paper you must have: Sources 1, 2 and 3 which are provided as a loose insert inside this question paper. Time allowed ? 2 hours and 15 minutes Instructions ? Answer all questions. ? Use black ink or black ball-point pen. Fill in the boxes at the top of this page. ? You must answer the questions in the spaces provided. Do not write outside the box around each page or on blank pages. ? Do all rough work in this book. Cross through any work you do not want to be marked. ? You must refer to the insert booklet provided. ? You must not use a dictionary. Information ? The marks for questions are shown in brackets. ? The maximum mar k for this paper is 80. ? There are 40 marks for Section A and 40 marks for Section B. ? You are reminded of the need for good English and clear presentation in your answers. There is one insert inside this question paper. Sources 1, 2 and 3 are printed on the insert. ? You will be assessed on the quality of your reading in Section A. ? You will be assessed on the quality of your writing in Section B. Advice ? Before you start writing read through all six of the questions you have to answer and the three reading sources. ? You are advised to spend about one hour on Section A and about one hour on Section B. (JAN12ENG1H01) M/Jan12/ENG1H ENG1H 2 Section A: Reading Answer all questions in this section.You are advised to spend about one hour on this section. 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Evaluate the following article; discuss the research methodology and Assignment

Evaluate the following article; discuss the research methodology and implications for research in homeopathy - Assignment Example lbum 200, which are both collectively referred to as â€Å"verum† in the study, actually proved to be therapeutic only when â€Å"the volunteers [from the observed situation] were advised strictly to take arsenic-free water during the course of investigation† (Belon et al. 2007, p. 142). This therefore means that â€Å"some doubt was expressed as to whether the improvement noticed was actually due to their intake of the arsenic-free drinking water or†¦the homeopathic remedies† (Belon et al., p. 142). The study being analyzed right now was based on this idea that is why the 2007 study did not try to use any arsenic-free water for the purpose of avoiding the same confusion as the first studies that used such homeopathic remedies. However, the constant use of arsenic-contaminated water may have actually interfered with the expected results of the study since the subjects kept on taking arsenic-contaminated water at the same time that they were taking homeopathi c remedies. Thus, there could have been a sort of constant progression of the diseases brought about by arsenic contamination at the same time that the individual is being treated using homeopathic remedies. The efficiency of the remedy could have therefore been affected by the continuous supply of the cause of the disease. Furthermore, since the arsenic levels in every individual is not accounted for or that there is no way they could possibly be accounted for, then the study is therefore not entirely controlled. Some individuals may obviously be receiving relatively more arsenic levels than others, thus the effects of the homeopathic remedies on them may be different. In fact, this could have been the reason for the withdrawal of many of the respondents from the study who claimed that they did not experience ameliorating changes in them. Another problem with the research investigation was that 39 subjects of 20 males and 19 females may not have been enough as a particular sample size to represent the whole

Synthesis and Evaluation Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Synthesis and Evaluation - Essay Example Friedman, therefore, wonders how a business can be said to have responsibilities, yet it is just an object. Similarly, Kotler & Zaltman (1971) agree that the objective of marketing a business strategy is to optimize profits. On a different note, however, while Kotler & Zaltman (1971) believe in the promising future of social responsibility in business, Freidman (1970) holds that businessmen who talk about social responsibility are puppets of social stratification. The difference in opinion, here is that Friedman does not believe in the future of social responsibility in business and is more objectivist. Kotler & Zaltman in contrast, though a bit objectivist, are more constructionist and still have faith in social responsibility of business. Some recent articles are similar in philosophy to seminal works, while others are not. Karnani (2010) is more objectivist just like Friedman, arguing that the idea that businesses can be socially responsible is a dangerous illusion. He argues that businesses only focus social responsibility in areas that promise massive profits. Carroll & Shabana (2010) on the other hand take on a more constructionist approach by arguing that indeed businesses can engage in social responsibility for the good of all stakeholders. Without the shareholders, the business would not exist. The latter, essentially, gives meaning to the former, thereby giving social responsibility in business a constructionist approach. Seminal works have a similar methodology as they rely more on qualitative methods to obtain data, specifically library sources. They constantly refer to the works of previous authors. Recent articles are different from seminal ones as they incorporate the use of both qualitative such as library sources and quantitative methods. Although recent scholars also make use of other literature, they also carry out researches and come up with statistical data to

Brand development plan Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Brand development plan - Essay Example Positioning†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦8 v. Secondary Association†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦9 vi. Legal Protection†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦10 Communicating the new brand†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦..10 i. Marketing Communication†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.11 a. Advertising†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦..†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦11 b. Personal selling†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦..12 c. Sales promotion†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦12 d. Public relations†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦12 Possibility of Brand extension †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦12 Conclusion†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.13 R eferences†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦14 Introduction Nearly all businesses have names they use in trading, from the small scale retailer to the large-scale multinational organization. Product branding has become increasingly fundamental in shaping a product profile. Branding uses names, symbols, labels and layouts to guarantee that a product is recognizable and distinct from competitive products in the market. A product brand signals both the origin of the product and the supplier responsibility for the product. Brand names create trusts and are particularly helpful for promoting the environmental qualities of products when these would otherwise not be apparent. Both the supplier and the customer benefit from branding. From a customer’s point of view, brands help reduce the demand for infor mation when making purchase decisions. Needless to say, they also provide status through the image they display, recognition and expected high quality. In essence, brands create a mental picture that provides focus to the consumer when choosing between several alternatives. From a supplier’s point of view, branding enhances the opportunity for initial sales and repeat buying. By differentiating a product from its rivals, branding provides some scope for pricing discretion, although the extent of discretion depends on the market structure. Lamb et al. (2011) states that a â€Å"company’s brand is the most powerful communication tool in marketing products† (p. 156). I reference to Kotler (1991) a brand â€Å"strategy is built on brand positioning, brand mission and brand promise† (156). This paper discusses the brand strategy for Flash Sports and footwear Incorporation. Flash Sports and Footwear Incorporation deals with both male and female sports and foot wear. This brand name will be used in all its products across the globe. Development of New Brand Being heard in the middle of a competitor’s growling voices is an overwhelming task in contemporary market. This is shockingly proved to be true each time we view the television, read the newspaper or magazine or visit the internet. As a result, there is need for a business to seek and develop new brand to effectively increase awareness and brand loyalty. Though brand development is by no means a new idea, Doyle (1994) asserts â€Å"today consumers have more access to information and more choices than ever before†

G.W. Bush and the Decision to Invade Iraq Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

G.W. Bush and the Decision to Invade Iraq - Essay Example After the attack of the 9/11, the greatest terrorist attack of the world so far, America took many diplomatic plunges and tried to sort out the scores through negotiations at the first and Jimmy Carter’s stand on the war against Iraq as a last resort with more alternatives being sought after initially. President Truman was trying to establish and dictate the American supremacy during the Cold War situation and a threat from the Soviet Block initiated the decision of launching the devastating nuclear weapon on Japan. On the contrary, the decision of invading Iraq by George W. Bush was a very calculated move as patience of America was displayed at the outset through negotiations and diplomacies of myriad types, even when America was passing through very trying times at the wake of 9/11 attacks on the nation. During the reign of Truman, the decision used to get impended on the grounds of exploring nuclear weapons at the closure of the war. With the change of time, now the great and powerful nations along with their highly skilled diplomats and great charismatic leaders need to rethink time and again on the issue of simply raging the war across the borders. All the nations are aware and are equipped with nuclear power and more dangerous chemical and biological weapons as well. A slightest ignorance and reluctance on the issue of using these weapons can lead to the destruction of the entire human race. Therefore, after the explosion of the first and most devastating nuclear attacks, treaties and agreements have condoned the development of nuclear technology and practice across the globe (The White House, â€Å"Multi-front Operation, 2001 Video & Timeline President Delivers State of the Union Address†). â€Å"Multi-front Operation, 2001 Video & Timeline President Delivers State of the Union Address.† State of the Union. The White House, 2002. Web. 16 Jul. 2013.

Business Ethics is an Oxymoron Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Business Ethics is an Oxymoron - Essay Example Liss then tries to justify this by saying that, these lies are not simply lies but the rules of business hence making it appear as if a business cannot thrive in the absence of lies. Such and similar comments, which a substantial number ascribe to have given rise to a saying that business ethics is an oxymoron. Focus on this particular branch of business studies can be accredited to recent business scandals (Nyberg 2008, p.587). In order to understand that, business ethics is an oxymoron, it is imperative that one defines the meaning of the terms both from a semantic and pragmatic point of view. Semantically they are not opposites hence the oxymoron cannot be an overtone. However, when the contextual pragmatics is taken into consideration, one cannot fail to notice some reasonable degree of logic in the assumption. Business ethics are defined as a critical and structured examination of how people engaged in business should behave in relation to their customers, neighboring society, t he environment labor and any other individuals or institutions likely to be influenced by their action or inactions. This point of view is, {"status":"TOOLBAR_READY", "toolbar":206720000} however, not a true representative of the fats on the ground since business and ethics do not always contradict each other. Nonetheless, several aspects of the business of making the profit directly contradict what is considered moral, or ethical. This paper will discuss what aspects of business practice contradict business ethics using various examples to show the polarity that sometimes exists, but with the view of demonstrating that business and ethics do not have to be in contradiction. This is so since ethics are in existence not to make businesses profitable, but to make it fair for all stakeholders including consumers, the society, employees and competing for business.  

Short Answers Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Short Answers - Essay Example Because of the vast territory, there emerged a more global culture within the city-states which integrates their artistic styles into a single art form which we now call Hellenistic art (Greek Art 1). The classical period has emphasized the shift from depicting gods and goddesses with their ideal forms into human beings in their natural state. This has been continued in the Hellenistic period yet "the artist of the Hellenistic era expanded his formal horizons with dramatic posing, sweeping lines, and high contrast of light, shadow and emotions" (Greek Art 2. From the simple depiction of Poseidon or Zeus in the classical era, the Hellenistic art comes up with more dramatic masterpieces such as the sculpture of Antinous which imparts deeper emotion. It should also be noted that the "subtle implications of greatness and humility of the classical era are replaced with bold expressions of energy and power" (Greek Art 3). The classical period's Charioteer of Dephi even though recognized for the severity of movements is relatively static when compared to the Hellenistic period's Boy Jockey which highlights tension. Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle are considered the three greatest thinkers in Greece.

Intercultural Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Intercultural - Essay Example It defines and shapes their society and so it is plays a key role. Ladies and gentlemen, I wish to say Russia has pleasing and often exceptional cuisine and recipes. People in Russia have their own ideas regarding what and how to eat. Russians like to consume home-cooked food, and they rarely buy ready meals at supermarkets. Allow me at this point to say something about festivals in Russia, particularly Maslenitsa. Maslenitsa is a pure Russian holiday which refers you back to the times of pagan. During this festival, kids make themselves busy by playing games while the elders cook huge stacks of pancakes. The festival also consists of snowball fights, riding on swings, masquerades, sledding, and sleigh rides. In the festival, image of Maslenitsa is also burnt to usher in spring and return of the sun. Russia is really cold especially the Northern part during winters. The average winter temperature never falls below -15 degrees Celsius. However, as you approach the south, Russian climate gets warmer. It is warm--even hot-- in the central part of Russia, which makes it promising for a worthy harvest of grain, vegetables, and fruit. Ladies and gentlemen, with that short speech, I wish to end by saying Russia has wonderful culture and a nice weather, which in a way explains Russians` ability to endure extreme hardship and harsh

Batman the Dark Knight (2008) and Religious Views Essay

Batman the Dark Knight (2008) and Religious Views - Essay Example Harvey Dent (Aaron Eckhart) the District Attorney is threatened by this action. Going by the situation he approaches Lt. Jim Gordon (Gary Oldman) and the Batman. As there are very little that could had been done by being within the boundary of law, Batman is asked to bring back Lau from Hong Kong. The Joker brings in a series of terrorism in the city and Batman again had to don in his black cloak and fight against the terror. Instead of following the league and reprocessing the super hero cliche, Nolan tries to depict his two archetypal characters that are the Joker and the Batman with an emphasis on religious relevance. Religious Aspect The directorial aspect of Nolan resemble with the Buddhist understanding, where the evil deeds of the movie have been shown as an effect of various adverse causes and situation. Unlike other superhero movie evil is not created out of vacuum here. In fact the joker has been portrayed as a victim of severe emotional and physical child abuse. The Distri ct attorney who is the protector of law also breaks the law of the city when he asks the Batman to do something which remains unresolved by law. The absence of good has been constructed through actions in the movie. The emergence of Two-Face in the movie reveals the dichotomy in the human nature and that no single human being is either a white character-full of virtues or a black character-full of vices, they represent shades of grey. Two-Face has also been symbolized by the fact that despite the economic crisis in the city of Gotham, the mafias and the Joker are able to keep small army of people. The movie depicts the joker as the most non- religious person and the Batman is the religious person who thinks for the good of the human kind. Respecting humanity is the essence of any religion in the world and hence Batman can be regarded as the religious character despite some controversies which does not acknowledge him as a Catholic and denotes him rather, as a Catholic who has drifte d away. A religious person is expected to follow certain rituals like paying a visit to the church. The Batman does not seem to follow these rituals and hence might lead to a controversy when regarded as a religious character. However while diffusing the bomb the Batman says, â€Å"If I had the time or the right – I’d say a prayer†. Again, the character of Two-Face is regarded as non religious in traditional sense. Even this has been projected as a villainous character as a result of severe psychosis. The movie reveals how human beings are vulnerable and get more influenced by Satan than by God despite the religious beliefs of some characters. Also the importance of rituals and good deeds or actions can be controversial at times while commenting on a character’s religiosity. Analysis of the ritualistic aspect of the movie The three main characters can be analyzed in the context of rituals and religious beliefs. Harvey Dent or Two-Face who was initially wh ite turns black in the end when he is killed. Batman is represented in shades of gray while the Joker is depicted in black shade. The Joker does not believe in ethics or religion. On the other hand, the Batman, through his actions symbolizes godly deeds but he does not believe in rituals. When the Two-Face is cured from his psychosis state, he is seen to wear the Taoist symbol on his belt. This might give an impression of ritual which according to Nye, is more

Visual Basic Programming Language Essay Example for Free

Visual Basic Programming Language Essay A computer program is the set of instructions a computer follows to execute a specific operation that includes to input, process, output and store data to meet unique information needs. Professors John Kemeny and Thomas Kurtz of Dartmouth College as a tool to train students in computer programming created the original basic programming language in the 1960s. (Voon Kiong, 2008) The word basic stands for Beginner’s All-purpose Symbolic Instruction Code. The latest advancement of basic; visual basic programming language has incorporated a graphic interface and event-driven programming. Features of current system It includes several components; first a graphic user interface which provides a fully integrated development environment for easy access to all visual basic development tools. Secondly it incorporates a set of objects such as labels and buttons that can respond to a wide variety of user-initiated events. Thirdly it consists of a vocabulary of statements, methods, and a set of rules for the construction of program codes. Lastly it has the ability to compile stand-alone executable Windows programs. (Mabbutt, 2008) Benefits and uses This programming begins with a form on which the programmer draws all the objects necessary to support the needs of the application and user for example data can be displayed on the in labels that are placed in the form and keyboard input is typically entered via text boxes where command buttons provide access to activities such as printing or exiting the applications. All these are controls which contain both a purpose and a set of predefined events to which they can respond. The programmer writes modules of code called procedures associated with an event of a command button. This approach to programming is a departure from traditional programming that required execution in a top-down manner sequence, which had to be pre-defined. An event-driven program gives the user control over the order in which actions occur. Work cited: Dr. Liew Voon Kiong (2008, 5th November) visual basic tutorial. Retrieved 9th May 2008 Accessed from: http://www. vbtutor. net/ Dan Mabbutt (2008, 7th May). Guide to visual basic. Retrieved 9th May 2008 Accessed from: http://visualbasic. about. com

Sources Of Failure In Strategic Alliance Formulation Commerce Essay

Sources Of Failure In Strategic Alliance Formulation Commerce Essay Today, organizations face global competition and will on the long run only be successful if they can successfully exploit their value delivery potential of the relationships; strategic alliances and partnerships. Organisations that work together for the purpose of mutual benefit is a concept that is gaining ground in business markets, as market leaders now understand that success from collaboration can be a viable competitive advantage. Organisations entering into alliances in the twenty-first century need to size up their prospective partners in order to ensure that they achieve more success than their predecessors. However, identifying the best partner is only the first step in increasing the probably of alliance success. Proper design and coordination are needed to facilitate the stability of an alliance and to achieve an effective working relationship between the partners. Trust and commitment between alliance partners is the ultimate goal. Only then can the true benefits of ente ring into an alliance be realised. It is really important for a company that is interested in forming a strategic alliance that the partner chosen have the internal capacities needed for the performed activity. In other words, the competencies required to achieve the desired goal. In this sense, small differences in terms of management style and culture between the cooperating firms may end up becoming serious problems that make it difficult to create synergies. There are a large number of characteristics (honesty, positive disposition, efficacy, etc.) that can only be appreciated after several years in the relationship. It is convenient for a firm to work informally with another company before formalising the strategic alliance. This can help to assess levels of compatibility and its potential evolution, since it is with daily contact that we can discover the partners habits and tendencies. INTRODUCTION In todays changing and developing business world, strategic alliances have become an important tool for the success many business ventures. According to Ohmae (1989, p 143), last 20 years have been marked an era of world`s development. Some of the evolutions of this period are the globalisation of markets, quick changes in technology, and the expansion of many domestic organizations` boundaries. As result of these rapid motions, strategic alliances have importantly become a competitive necessity. One of the reasons of this necessity is that a single firm is unlikely to have all the resources and capabilities to accomplish global competitiveness. Thus, cooperation between companies which has complementary resources is always important for survival and growth. (Dussauge, Garrette and Mitchell, 1998) According to Morossini (1999), strategic alliances are change for the firms to reduce risks and share resources, gain knowledge and technology, expand the existing product lines, and opport unity to enter new markets. Strategic alliances provide firms to expand their reach without having to maximise their risk or commit themselves beyond their core business. However, as mentioned above, although strategic alliances bring big opportunities and provide conveniences for many companies, at the same time, there are some challenges that can result with failure for the organizations. The percentage of failures of strategic alliances is changeable from a low 30 per cent (Cullen, 2007), to a high 70 per cent (Dacin et al, 2007). Apart from the expecting risks of entering into an alliance competition between partners is often pointed as the major reason for alliance failure (Dacin et al, 1997). Throughout this paper, it will be examined, analysed and discussed that the most frequent sources of failure in forming strategic alliances and what can be done to mitigate these problems. OBSTACLES THAT ALLIANS PARTNERS FACE Obstacles that alliance partners face can be divided into hard and soft issues. Hard factors involve the linking of different financial and control systems and settling legal disputes (The Economist, 1999). On the other hand, soft factors are related to people and human resource issues, which involve building effective working relationships and integrating disparate corporate cultures (Hitt et al, 1999). It is usually the insufficient attention to the soft issues that result in the failure of many strategic alliances. Pertinently, culture permeates a company, and differences can poison any collaboration (The Economist, 1999). The more culturally distant two firms are, the greater the differences in organisational and administrative practices, employee expectations, and the interpretation of strategic issues (Schneider and De Meyer, 1991, p 307). The problem is compounded with cross-border alliances, where language barriers create communication problems. Poor communication often leads to coordination problems, managerial conflict and distrust. Without trust, the cost of transferring managerial practices and technologies will be high, because safeguards against opportunistic behaviour are needed (Park and Ungson, 1997, p 279). Therefore, in order to avoid such problems, firms entering into an alliance need to be culturally compatible. Indeed, it has been suggested that cultural compatibility is the most important factor in ensuring the long-term success of an alliance (Lane and Beamish, 1990, p 87). SOURCES OF FAILURE IN FORMING STRATEGIC ALLIANCES There are always a series of challenges that have to be faced when forming a strategic alliance and the right people need to be recruited in order for the alliance to be a success. Some of these challenges are discussed below: (Tetenbaum, 2001) Small differences in terms of management style and culture between the cooperating companies may end up becoming serious problems that will make it very difficult to create a synergy, therefore leading to a poor financial performance or even total dissolution of the alliance. It is essential for the human resources team to be aware of these differences in order for them to properly formulate and help with the implementation of the organizational strategy within the alliance. I will present some of the differences that help in the success or failures of a strategic alliance and that have to be addressed by the human resource department. Problems that result from human are significant for the implementation of an alliance, and may alone determine its success or failure. For this reason, it is significant that HRM specifies every member`s ability in the organization, within the management team, and what motivates those skills, in order to place the appropriate individuals in key positions. (Tetenbaum, 2001) The most critical period of a strategic alliance is the beginning part which is a period of maximum uncertainty and apprehension for the workers, along that the company has to find a reaction to their logical concerns, giving these employees something better than what they already have, therefore succeeding in establishing stability long enough to guarantee some permanent results. (Tetenbaum, 2001) A strategic alliance usually brings about the introduction of a series of changes in the co-operating organisations behaviour. These changes can be a sign a potential source of challenges and conflicts with the companys personnel which may lead to the failure of the collaboration, if they are not properly sorted out. (Tetenbaum, 2001) The Culture: Although the organizational change derived from the creation of a strategic alliance is conditioned by the attitude of the human resources, this attitude also depends on the personal values and the corporate culture. This brings us to the following subject which gives us another source of problems when implementing a strategic alliance. (Tetenbaum, 2001) Culture: The existence of different cultures is an obstacle that strategic alliances are forced to encounter. The resistance to change may arise because the low rank employees may have not been properly informed of what the goals are; they might be less experienced than top management at working with people form other culture, or they just do not agree with the new alliance. This is why the human resources team is a key element for the strategic alliance. (Tetenbaum, 2001) Different Types of Culture: National and organizational cultures have an impact on the degree of organizational involvement and outcomes. National culture has been defined by Hofstede as, the collective programming of the mind which distinguishes the members of one human group or category of people from another. (Tetenbaum, 2001) WHAT CAN BE DONE TO MITIGATE THESE PROBLEMS? There are some factors and key point that need to be taken into account by organizations when joining into a strategic alliances or a strategic alliance is being formed. Organizations that fit these important points will always be successful. Some of these important factors can be specified as followings: Organisations entering into alliances in the twenty-first century need to size up their prospective partners in order to ensure that they achieve more success than their predecessors. However, identifying the best partner is only the first step in increasing the probably of alliance success. Proper design and coordination are needed to facilitate the stability of an alliance and to achieve an effective working relationship between the partners. Trust and commitment between alliance partners is the ultimate goal. Only then can the true benefits of entering into an alliance be realised. (Saxton, 1997) Executive managers will need to have know-how; however other competencies will be required to create a synergy. Ideally these competencies will be found in all the persons involved with the project. Some of the competencies required by the human resources management team when selecting the members of the strategic alliance are: flexibility, humbleness, integrity, patience, curiosity, and not afraid of making mistakes. It is important that HRM determine whether the right person can be found within the ranks of the company or whether external recruiting is the best choice. This decision is crucial for the future of the alliance. CONCLUSION In order for an alliance to work the human resources team must take the time to understand the challenges existing when putting two companies together and they have to be willing to unite two groups of managers that will have to plan for and build their new organization; they need to be sensitive to the human, organizational culture, and cultural issues that have to be addressed along the way. Most important, the human resource team needs to find and motivate executives that want to grow their businesses and create added value for their shareholders, customers, employees, and themselves. What we can assume from the several researches that have been done is that, cooperation and effective management are major points for the success of the alliance. From the problems that appear within a strategic alliance, these related to the human resource management which participate in the alliance especially stand out. Therefore, using knowledge related asymmetries may be a way to protect a companys specific asset while gaining valuable knowledge from the alliance without attacking the partner company. Another situation that has to be taken into consideration is that the appearance of cultural challenges does not mean that the strategic alliance will be dissolve. The human resources team has to put in place a training programme for cultural understanding to help employees cope with the differences. On the other hand, it is very important to include managers with multicultural skills within the alliance team to be able to sooth any possible tension. Finally, we can observe that the top reason of creating an alliance with another firm is that the union promotes attainment of strategic goals more quickly and inexpensively than if the company acts on its own. Especially in this era of intense change, rapid technological advance and ever-increasing globalization, alliances enable organizations to gain flexibility, leverage competencies, shared resources, and create opportunities that otherwise are unthinkable. Even though reality shows us that the number of strategic alliances that have succeeded is very low.

The significance of preventing accidents In a construction industry

The significance of preventing accidents In a construction industry Today, most of the top managers, contractors and workers, who work in construction industry, are aware about the significance of preventing accident.( In fact they know that ignoring safety and health can impose a high penalty on a company -large or small. Also individual accident or injury can mean compensation, time off and lost production and what have seemed to be a minor risk becomes a major liability)(safety at work/compiled by Badrie Abdullah/p.iii). Therefore they know the valuable of occupational safety and health management (OSH), although most of the managers havent enough knowledge about OSH. It means that they dont know what the OSH is and how they must use it. In this report I try to investigate different part of OSH management in addition the need for it. Introduction In current years, construction accident rates have decreased as a result of substantial effort by many parties. Increased pressures from OSHA and owners, and increased cost of accidents raised the contractors awareness. In turn, contractors increased safety training and enforcement. These efforts have decline the injury and illness rate from 12.2 in 1993 to 7.9 in 2001. The recent approach to accident prevention is based on OSHAs violations approach and focuses on prescribing and enforcing defenses that is, physical and procedural barriers that reduce the workers exposure to hazards. The violations of the defenses are called unsafe conditions and unsafe behaviors. (Systems Model of Construction Accident Causation /Panagiotis Mitropoulos1; Tariq S. Abdelhamid2; and Gregory A. Howell3.p.12) Only knowing about the benefits of OSH management isnt enough, we must be act and apply it. So at first its important to understand the necessity of OSH management then definition of OSH management and finally how we can follow its rules to make our workplace safe. Who are included in the safety value chain? Maybe, it `s better to ask this question who should be interested in accident causation and safety system? In fact the safety value chain includes students, researchers, technicians, system designers, operators, managers, shareholders, accident investigators and safety inspectors. (Fig.1), all these groups affect to system safety in different time-scale. Educators and researchers play important role in this safety value chain, because educators by teaching safety culture can help students to have awareness before they enter to workplace and they impact on accident prevention in long term. Safety levels Short- term Medium-term Long-term Regulatory Accident investigators, safety inspectors, and regulators (Penalties) Economic (Incentives) Insurers shareholders Organizational/ Managers and company executives Managerial Operational/ Technicians and system designers Maintenance Technical/ Engineers and system designers Design Research researchers and academics Education students Fig 1.safety levers and shareholders in the safety value chain Accident theories based on year: NO Models year 1 Domino Theory Heinrich 1931 2 Multi casual Model Gordon 1941 3 Critical Incident Technique Flanagan 1954 4 Combination of Factors Model Schulzinger 1956 5 Goals Freedom Alertness Theory Kerr 1957 6 Energy Exchange Model Haddon et al 1964 7 Decision Model Surry In Viner 1969 1991a 8 Behavioral Methods Hale Hale Anderson et al 1970 1978 9 Fault Tree Analysis II Meister Hoys Zimolong 1971 1988 10 Error Model Wigglesworth 1972 11 Life Change Unit Model Alkov 1972 12 Hazard Carrier Model Skiba Hoys Zimolong 1973 1988 13 Task-Demand Model Waller Klein 1973 14 Multilinear Events Sequencing Model Banner 1975 15 Systems Safety Analysis Smillie Ayoub 1976 16 Risk Estimation Model Rowe 1977 17 Danger response Model Hale Prusse 1977 18 Incidental Factor Analysis Model Leplat 1978 19 Accident Sequence Model Ramsey Quoted in Sanders McCormick Ramsey 1978 1987 1985 20 Psychological Model Corlett Gilbank 1987 21 Domino/Energy Release Zabetakis, quoted in Heinrich et al 1980 22 Stair Step Model Douglas, quoted in Heinrich et al 1980 23 Motivation Reward Satisfaction Model Petersen, quoted in Heinrich et al 1980 24 Energy Model Ball, quoted in Heinrich et al 1980 25 Systems Model Firenze, quoted in Heinrich et al 1980 26 Epidemiological Model Suchman, quoted in Heinrich et al 1980 27 Updated Domino Model Bird Jr, quoted in Heinrich et al 1980 28 Updated Domino Model Adams, quoted in Heinrich et al 1980 29 Updated Domino Model II Weaver, quoted in Heinrich et al 1980 30 Task Ability Model Drury Brill 1980 31 OARU Model Kjellen Hovden Kjellen Larsson 1981 32 Traffic Conflicts Technique Zimolong 1982 33 Signals Passed at Danger Decision Tree Model Taylor, R. K. and Lucas, D.A in ch.8 of Van Der Schaaf , Lucas Hale 1991 34 Ergonomic Behavioral Methods Kjellen 1984 35 Human Causation Model Mager Pipe 1984 36 Near Accidents Incidents Swain 1985 37 Behavior Model Rasmussen 1986 38 Contributing Factors Model Sanders Shaw 1987 39 Hazard Carrier Model Hayos Zimolong 1988 40 Comet Model Boylston 1990 41 Comprehensive Human Factors Model Dejoy 1990 42 View of Workers on Safety Decisions Model Saari 1990 43 Epidemiological Model Kriebel, quoted in Cone et al 1990 44 Universal Model McClay 1990 45 Federation of Accident Insurance Institution(Finland)Model Seppanen 1997 46 Question Tree Model Hale et al.in Van Der Schaaf, Lucas Hale 1991 47 Occurrence Consequence Process Model Viner 1991b 48 Onward Mappings Model based on Resident Pathogens Metaphor Reason 1991 49 Functional Levels Model Hurst et al 1992 50 Tripod Tree Wheelahan 1994 51 Attribution Theory Model Dejoy 1994 52 Cindynic Hyperspace Kervern 1995 53 Fig.2 Accident theories (Enhancing Occupational Safety and Health, Geofry Taylor, Kellie Easter, Roy Hegney)2004 What is occupational safety and control? The Occupational Safety and Health management is a management which provides the legislative framework to secure the safety, health and welfare among all workforces and to protect others against risks to safety or health in connection with the activities of persons at work.( Job Seeker Handbook/alaysian Labour Law : Regulation of Employment) Occupational health and safety is a discipline with a broad scope involving many specialized fields. In its broadest sense, it should aim at: the promotion and maintenance of the highest degree of physical, mental and social well-being of workers in all occupations; the prevention among workers of adverse effects on health caused by their working conditions; The protection of workers in their employment from risks resulting from factors adverse to health; The placing and maintenance of workers in an occupational environment adapted to physical and mental needs; The adaptation of work to humans. In other words, occupational health and safety encompasses the  social, mental and physical well-being of workers that is the whole person. (Website of International Labor organization) What is an accident? It is necessary to define what we mean by the word accident, because before anyone can begin to put up any sort of a flight, he must know his enemy. So we must do the same. An accident is an unplanned event, which could result in injury to persons or in damage to plant and equipment or both. Also accidents are consequent of unplanned (unsafe) acts or unplanned (unsafe) conditions performed or created by people. In fact people cause accidents, by what they do or what they neglect to do and the activity of people, in a factory or any other place of work, are controlled by management. (a safe place of work/D.WB James/p.56) From the linguistic point of view, the word accident is the present participle of the Latin verb accident which means to happen, which in turn is derived from ad- + cadere, meaning to fall. The literal meaning of accident is therefore that of a fall or stumble. The derivation from to fall is significant, since falling is not something one dose on purpose. If someone falls while walking or while climbing, it is decidedly an unexpected and unwanted event. It is, in other words, what we call an accident: an unforeseen and unplanned event, which leads to some sort of loss or injury. Other definitions of accident , such as they can be found in various dictionaries, concur that an accident is an unforeseen and unplanned event or circumstance that (1) happens unpredictably without discernible human intention or observable cause and (2) leads to loss or injury. Used as an adverb, to say that something happens accidently or happens by accident means that it happens by chance. (Barriers and Accident Prevention/Erik Hollnagel p.34/2005) The need for accident models It is a truism that we cannot think about something without having the words and concepts to describe it, or without having some frame of reference. The advantage of having a common frame of reference is that communication and understanding become more efficient, because a number of things can be taken for granted. The frame of reference is particularly important in thinking about accidents, because it determines how we view the role of humans. (Barriers and Accident Prevention/Erik Hollnagel p.4445/2005) Accident causation models: Figure 2.  Diagram showing the dominate five perceptions of accident causation (Benner 1975).   The single event concept SINGLE EVENT CONCEPT What the first opinion of accident causation is the Single Event Concept. This idea concentrates that a single event caused accident. It means that this simple model is the widest The first perception of accident causation is the single event concept. This concept focuses on the premise that accidents are caused by a single event. This simple model exemplifies the quest for the cause of what occurred. The search for a scapegoat and taking care of the scapegoat would solve the problem. This concept is the most widely perceived and least complex. The public and media typically utilize this concept when they ask what caused the accident?   Limitations The single events concept is limited in its ability to see the accident as a process or sequence of events in time. The factors that may contribute to the accident are not identified or pursued due to the fact that the real cause is obvious and visible. Causes that may underline human behavior are rarely determined.   Application Current applications are primarily apparent in how the public and media view accidents. This viewpoint is reinforced by findings such as when an airline accident was caused by pilot error. Police citations are another example of the perception.   CHAIN OF EVENTS CONCEPT History The chain of events concept or domino theory was originally developed by Heinrich (1941). The basic concept implied that accidents resulted from a sequence of events that led to an accident. Like a row of dominos, once the sequence began each event led to the next until an accident occurred. Intervention at any point along the events sequence could halt the accident process and eliminate the unwanted results. An unsafe act starts the chain of events that began with an unsafe condition.   Limitations This concept is limited by the linear progression characteristic of the model. Interactions among events, contributing causes, and the duration and timing of each event limit the identification of all causal factors.   Applications The current use of this concept is prevalent in the legal field that attempts to reconstruct the sequence of events that led to the accident.   2.the determinat variable concept 3.the domino theory 4.the fault tree analytical methodology FAULT TREE ANALYSIS Heinrich (1941) developed the methodology that preceded and formed the basis for Fault Tree Analysis. He illustrated the linear sequence of factors in accident causation by using a domino theory. The theory stated that a disturbance that caused any one of the five identified components of the sequence to fail would set off a chain-of-events that led to an accident. The five in the sequence were 1) ancestry and social environment, 2) conditions and fault of person, 3) unsafe act, 4) unsafe condition and 5) injury. He showed that by intervention at any point along the sequence an accident/injury could be prevented. This theory has been modified and updated (Baker 1953, Marcum 1978, Heinrich et al 1980), and has wide applicability in current automobile accident and law enforcement investigations.   Similar linear sequence models such as Critical Path Analysis (CPA), Gantt Charts, and Program Evaluation Research Task (PERT), were initially used in the 1950s and 60s as planning tools (Lockyer 1964). Though many names were given to their process they were very similar in their goals and methods. They provided a graphical display of activities linked to events by arrows in order to plan complex projects. The process illustrated a flow (path) from one task sequence to the next and incorporated time frames and interrelationships between tasks. Projects could then be analyzed by task, the amount of time needed for each segment and the relationship a task may have with another task. These methods offered an effective means of project planning, costs analysis, and time frame considerations by visually outlining the task process (Lockyer 1964). These processes also provided the means to better understand the interrelationships between and among tasks. This logical depiction of process fl ow related directly to analyzing an accident sequence and the precursor events.   In the 1960s Bell Laboratories expanded upon the linear chain of events concept through missile system safety. They arranged events in a flow chart that used a proceed/follow logic pattern. Their concept, Fault Tree Analysis (Figure 11), is generally credited to Watson (1971). Figure 12 illustrates the fault tree concept as applied to a hypothetical accident where a wildland firefighter was burned. This analysis concept helped provide a sense of management by objectives by identifying unwanted events (the top event) and then systematically and sequentially determining the precursor events. The objective is the top event and the identification of the preceding causal factors aid in the management achievement of that objective. Watsons Fault Tree Analysis investigation methodology provided a visible, easily understood and defendable format (1971). The methodology extended the linear chain of events into a branched events chains concept through the use of and/or logic gates. It uses bas ic Boolean logic in a hierarchical tree format. Other Boolean terms such as not are not used in Fault Tree Analysis. For example, C can only occur when both A  and  B occur. If two or more events are required for a cause to happen then an and symbol is used. Another possibility is when only one of the factors need be present. For C to occur, then A  or  B occurred. If only one event of two or more are necessary then an or gate is used. The top event is the unwanted result of the accident and causal factors branch out below leading to it. The downward sequence is continued until the root causes are found or the tree cannot be further developed. This technique, according to Benner (1975), contributed a powerful tool for the investigation of accidents both historical and postulated. Accidents could be investigated or reinvestigated in the search for causal factors utilizing this method. It assisted in illuminating areas that may have previously been overlooked by other means. Numerous approaches to determining accident causal factor using branched events chains reflected the discipline of the investigations employing it; thus medical doctors   used an epidemiological approach (agent/host/environment), while psychologists focused on human factors.   Figure 11. Fault Tree diagram illustrating a typical failure process, symbols used,   and the logic sequence leading to an undesired event, a dark room (in Ferry 1988). Figure 12. Fault Tree diagram illustrating the deductive process using an example of a sequence of events in which a firefighter receives burns.   One key limitation of Fault Tree Analysis is the inability to model time sequences that are concurrent and interactive (Hendrick and Benner 1987). Brown (1993) added that only one event could be analyzed at a time and thus primarily applicable to catastrophic events. Benner (1975) cited similar deficiencies, most notably that charting analysis methods focus on a single undesired event and provided no means to indicate the chronological relationships (and the subsequent concurrent interrelationships) of events. Another limitation is the restriction inherent in the method whereby causes must be either successes or failures and degrees of each are not accounted for (Tulsiani and others 1990).   5.the energy-barriers-targets model Barriers Analysis Barriers Analysis is an accident investigation method that is an additional component of the MORT process. The method identifies barriers/controls that are in place to prevent accidents. These barriers may be physical and/or administrative and must be absent, inadequate, or bypassed in order for the accident to occur. A more detailed account of this approach will be undertaken in the methods section as this method is one of the USDA proposed investigative tools (USDA 1998).   6.the management oversight and risk tree History Traditional accident investigations focused on the active response to a mishap and the identification of procedures to prevent future occurrences. The degree and intensity of the accident dictated the intensity of the investigation response and subsequent preventative action (Brown 1993). But as technology advanced and systems became more complex, the consequences of accidents became increasingly unacceptable to society and industry, particularly in the nuclear power industry. The nuclear industry and similar high-risk technologies have determined that learning from accidents and even near misses was not an option. The consequences of accidents precluded the traditional trial by error approach where as accidents occurred the problem was fixed subsequent to the next mishap (termed the fly-fix-fly approach). A new approach was undertaken to become proactive as well as reactive in accident analysis techniques to determine possible failure points prior to occurrence. Johnson (1973a) work ing for the National Safety Council and under a contract from the US Atomic Energy Commission focused on a systems approach to accident analysis. This approach focused on the entire system in which accidents occurred and the interaction of events within that system. Johnson merged two basic views to focus on management responsibility in planning the context in which accidents occur. These views, understanding the energy release process and focusing management of that hazard on the route of its release, led Johnson to develop the concept of less than adequate management decisions. This progressed to the Management Oversight and Risk Tree (MORT) accident analysis tool. He said MORT was an analytical procedure that provides a disciplined approach for finding the causes and contributing factors of mishaps. It entailed a very broad and detailed checklist that facilitated the search for safety problems. It incorporated 1500 possible causes and 98 generic problems and was the initial metho dology to embody management oversight into accident causation. The Department of Energy currently employs this method as one of its most comprehensive analytical techniques (DOE 1992). It is more generally used as a proactive method in safety system evaluations than as an accident investigation method. This is primarily due to the fact that it can be time consuming and intensive and due to the nature of the nuclear industry, identifying possible loopholes in the safety system to eliminate hazards is more cost effective and publicly expedient than after the accident occurs.   This concept was highly visible, easily reviewed and updated as new relevant facts warrant, and provided structure to help reduce overlooked factors and bias. Within the MORT system incidents were defined as inadequate barrier/controls or as failures without consequence. Accidents resulted in adverse consequences. The MORT system incorporated the concept of the unwanted transfer of energy that can cause mishaps due to inadequate barriers/controls. These barriers and controls may be physical (protective clothing, concrete walls, etc) or administrative (codes, standards and regulations). The MORT system is based on two main sources of accidental losses: 1) specific job oversights and omissions and 2) the management system factors that control the job (Johnson 1973a). A third source he mentioned was assumed risk. Johnson noted that once this source was properly evaluated it could not be considered accidental in nature since we have consciously decided to accept the risk. Integral aspect s of the MORT process are Fault Tree Analysis, Barriers Analysis and Event and Causal Factors Charting. Each of these approaches will be subsequently explained.   Limitations Limitations of MORT are that it can be insufficient in finding specific causes as it designed to identify general causal areas (Gertman and Blackman 1994). These authors do recognize its strengths in identifying more specific control and managerial factors. Moreover, this systematic process is advantageous when system experts are not available.   Application Its current use as a proactive safety system analysis tool for the Department of Energy has long standing (Briscoe 1990). It has been used exclusively as both a proactive technique and an accident investigation method for the Nuclear Regulatory Commission.   7.petersen`s multiple causation model 8.reason`s swiss chess model of human error 1990 Reasons Swiss Cheese Model of Human Error One particularly appealing approach to the genesis of human error is the one proposed by James Reason (1990). Generally referred to as the Swiss cheese model of human error, Reason describes four levels of human failure, each influencing the next (Figure 1). Working backwards in time from the accident, the first level depicts those  Unsafe Acts  of Operators that ultimately led to the accident[1]. More commonly referred to in aviation as aircrew/pilot error, this level is where most accident investigations have focused their efforts and consequently, where most causal factors are uncovered. After all, it is typically the actions or inactions of aircrew that are directly linked to the accident. For instance, failing to properly scan the aircrafts instruments while in instrument meteorological conditions (IMC) or penetrating IMC when authorized only for visual meteorological conditions (VMC) may yield relatively immediate, and potentially grave, consequences. Represented as holes i n the cheese, these active failures are typically the last unsafe acts committed by aircrew. [1]  Reasons original work involved operators of a nuclear power plant. However, for the purposes of this manuscript, the operators here refer to aircrew, maintainers, supervisors and other humans involved in aviation. However, what makes the Swiss cheese model particularly useful in accident investigation, is that it forces investigators to address latent failures within the causal sequence of events as well. As their name suggests, latent failures, unlike their active counterparts, may lie dormant or undetected for hours, days, weeks, or even longer, until one day they adversely affect the unsuspecting aircrew. Consequently, they may be overlooked by investigators with even the best intentions. Within this concept of latent failures, Reason described three more levels of human failure. The first involves the condition of the aircrew as it affects performance. Referred to asPreconditions for Unsafe Acts, this level involves conditions such as mental fatigue and poor communication and coordination practices, often referred to as crew resource management (CRM). Not surprising, if fatigued aircrew fail to communicate and coordinate their activities with others in the cockpit or individuals external to the aircraft (e.g., air traffic control, maintenance, etc.), poor decisions are made and errors often result. Figure 1. The Swiss cheese model of human error causation (adapted from Reason, 1990). But exactly why did communication and coordination break down in the first place? This is perhaps where Reasons work departed from more traditional approaches to human error. In many instances, the breakdown in good CRM practices can be traced back to instances of  Unsafe Supervision, the third level of human failure. If, for example, two inexperienced (and perhaps even below average pilots) are paired with each other and sent on a flight into known adverse weather at night, is anyone really surprised by a tragic outcome? To make matters worse, if this questionable manning practice is coupled with the lack of quality CRM training, the potential for miscommunication and ultimately, aircrew errors, is magnified. In a sense then, the crew was set up for failure as crew coordination and ultimately performance would be compromised. This is not to lessen the role played by the aircrew, only that intervention and mitigation strategies might lie higher within the system. Reasons model didnt stop at the supervisory level either; the organization itself can impact performance at all levels. For instance, in times of fiscal austerity, funding is often cut, and as a result, training and flight time are curtailed. Consequently, supervisors are often left with no alternative but to task non-proficient aviators with complex tasks. Not surprisingly then, in the absence of good CRM training, communication and coordination failures will begin to appear as will a myriad of other preconditions, all of which will affect performance and elicit aircrew errors. Therefore, it makes sense that, if the accident rate is going to be reduced beyond current levels, investigators and analysts alike must examine the accident sequence in its entirety and expand it beyond the cockpit. Ultimately, causal factors at all levels within the organization must be addressed if any accident investigation and prevention system is going to succeed. In many ways, Reasons Swiss cheese model of accident causation has revolutionized common views of accident causation. Unfortunately, however, it is simply a theory with few details on how to apply it in a real-world setting. In other words, the theory never defines what the holes in the cheese really are, at least within the context of everyday operations. Ultimately, one needs to know what these system failures or holes are, so that they can be identified during accident investigations or better yet, detected and corrected before an accident occurs. The balance of this paper will attempt to describe the holes in the cheese. However, rather than attempt to define the holes using esoteric theories with little or no practical applicability, the original framework (called the  Taxonomy of Unsafe Operations) was developed using over 300 Naval aviation accidents obtained from the U.S. Naval Safety Center (Shappell Wiegmann, 1997a). The original taxonomy has since been refined using input and data from other military (U.S. Army Safety Center and the U.S. Air Force Safety Center) and civilian organizations (National Transportation Safety Board and the Federal Aviation Administration). The result was the development of the Human Factors Analysis and Classification System (HFACS). 1.2. Accident investigation methods During the last decades, a number of methods for accident investigation have been developed and described in the literature.The selection of methods for the needs of our study was made on the basis that they are described in the literature, they show the evolution of accident investigation over time and they are either widely used or recently developed. Based on these criteria, the following methods were selected: 1.2.1. Fault tree analysis (FTA) FTA was developed in the early 1960s by the Bell Laboratories (Ferry, 1988). In FTA, an undesired event (an accident) is selected and all the possible things that can contribute to the event are diagrammed as a tree in order to show logical connections and causes leading to a specified accident. FTA is more an analytical tool for establishing relations; it does not give the i